英文论文优秀范文模板 第一篇

第一章问题的提出

研究背景

今天的英语已经成为世界的共同的语言，在国际化与地球村的二十一世纪里，英语的沟通能力是走入国际社会必备的生活能力，就社会语言功用来看，拥有外语的专长可以增加职业竞争力，拓展国际文化观，甚至增进经济利益和提升社会地位，就因为英语的重要性，各国都致力在提升学生的英语能力上，我国也不例外。以英语为主要语言的地域占据了地球四分之一的面积。据估计，全世界约有三分之二的信件用英语书写，约有二分之一的报纸用英语出版。无疑，英语是世界商业、外交、科学和学术界的通用语言。把英语学好，便能为自己找到更多的学习机会；一个浩瀚、充满知识、自己原本无法接触的世界，便能展现在自己面前。但是我们不得不忽视的一个问题是，如今中学生的英文写作现状不容乐观，初中学生的词汇量少，平时写作机会较少，都是老师命题式的布置作业才会直接写作文，所学的句式结构还不足达到自如表达的水准。所以，大部分初中学生拿到英语作文题目时都会有一种“无从下手”感觉，写出来的作文不是文不对题，就是词不达意。有些学生审清题目后，知道怎么写，但写出来的文章却错漏百出，不是句型用错，就是时态、人称弄错，要不就是词汇运用不当（如同义、近义的误用和混用）。在中学英语写作课堂教学中由于时间投入少，训练量小，学生信心不足，有的学生甚至因“无话可说＂而放弃写作。

为了适应新形势对人才的需求，在基础教育阶段全面进行素质教育，是当前教育界正面临的一场深刻的改革。随着新一轮的课程改革在全国各地中小学普遍的进行，英语课堂教学作为英语课程改革的主要阵地也发生着重大的变化。自主学习、合作学习和探究学习正是英语新课程改革所追求的崭新的学习方式。合作学习是一种创意性和实效性兼备的教学理论与策略体系，倡导学生主动参与，搜集并处理信息，进而分析并解决问题。这能够引导学生在合作中学会质疑，调查，探究，改变传统的英语教学过程中过分依赖教材、过分强调接受学习、死记硬背、机械训练的现状，从而培养学生乐于探究、敢于质疑的态度以及交往与合作的能力。新课程要求，教学过程是师生交往、生生交往、共同发展的过程。没有交往，没有互动，就不会发生教学，也不存在教学。因此，必须倡导合作学习，重建和谐的、民主的、平等的师生关系，并由此建立起新的“学习共同体”以超越历史上的“教师中心论”和“学生中心论”，以使学生们在这个即将到来的学习化社会里能不断地更新自我，应对挑战。合作学习是这场基础教育改革的需要，也是科技和社会不断进步和发展的需要。

基础教育的需要

此外，有的学者针对写作能力强弱者，进行写作过程差异的比较研究。他发现能力弱者会内化写作过程的直线进行模式，当无法表达出计划构思的部分的时候，他们很容易受挫。此外，在修改方面，他们倾向于关注外在规划；反之，写作能力强者内化写作过程的反复迂回模式，在修改方面，他们倾向于关注内在的知觉感受，并借此产生更多的想法。其研究肯定修改的重要性，因为修改不仅仅是纠正语言形式的错误，更是纯粹的想法，再发现意义的过程。

学生综合语言运用能力的培养在很大程度上取决于教学的组织形式。现代教学理论认为，在教学活动中，学生应居于主体地位，教师居于主导地位。但目前，以教师为中心的讲授式教学仍然是初中英语教学的主要形式，教师往往只注重知识的讲授而忽视语言交际能力的培养；导致学生的主体地位得不到体现，只能被动的接受知识。没有积极思考、发问、质疑的机会。这种单一的教学组织形式使学生感到枯燥无味，甚至失去了学习英语的兴趣。在这种情况下，英语课堂教学组织形式有必要引进以学生为主体、以培养学生综合语言运用能力为总体目标的教学方式——合作学习。初中英语新课程的实施，让学生可以更加紧密地将知识与现实生活结合起来，更容易接受形式、感验内容。新课程也试图让学生把知识学习、能力培养以及情感态度和价值观的体验融为一体，达到综合目标的最大化；而这一目标的实现，仅仅依赖于传统教学模式和手段是不够的，迫切需要把学生的积极性和能动性激发出来，以“合作学习”的方法，让学生在参与中收获、在竞争中锻炼、在合作中提高、在互助中体验。

在这一系列的研究基础上，过程写作法应运而生，其根基繁茂而牢固。这一方法是将研究结果付诸于实践的一个成功的楷模。过程写作法将写作视为一种复杂的、循环式的心理认知过程、思维创造过程和社会交互过程。视写作活动为社会交际活动，注重写作思想内容的挖掘和表达，注重学生作为写作主体的能动性，强调反复修改在写作过程中的作用。根据这一写作教学原则，学生在写作的整个过程中加深了解自己的心理认知过程，提高发现问题、分析问题和解决问题的能力。与传统的成果写作法相反，过程写作法以写作过程为出发点，将写作过程纳为教学的重心，设计一系列课堂内外写作活动，设计一系列课堂交流互动的活动，让学生在交流互动与学习中投入到写作各个具体的过程中，通过交际互动来写作，通过写作而学习写作，从而在互动、学习中获得良好的英文写作的习惯，最终获取优秀的成稿。

我们知道，过程写作法最然是关注最终的写作成果，但它更强调写作过程的巨大作用。因为，过程才是写作的最重要的步骤。推崇此教学法的实践者们认为写作的关键在于：通过大脑的思维过程，逐步完成打草稿的必要阶段，最终所完成作品。因此，在北美和亚洲国家具体的推行和实施到目前为止取得了相当好的效果。

当前社会不断发展的需要

行为主义学者认为学习者的语言学习主要是通过“模仿”以及不断联系养成习惯，将对母语已知的部分与在第二语言中所认知的部分做连接，若母语和第二语言之间产生正迁移，那正是母语和第二语言之间具有相似性的结果，使母语的语法习惯可以迁移至第二语言，换言之，如果产生负迁移，则是母语和第二语言语法不同所导致，因为错误是由母语迁移至第二语言的。

针对行为主义学者所坚持的观点，有的学者认为行为主义所提的语言学习来自“模仿”，并不能帮组学习者在实际生活情景中使用第二语言，而且学习者无法持续接受目标语信息，以形成他们从未见过的句子，且有限的事前训练也不足以在沟通对话中所使用，而学习者在学习过程中可能犯的语言错误不全是基于母语和第二语言语法的不同产生的，此错误可能由于目标语与第二语言获得过程相似而犯的错误。

对中国学生学习英文写作来说，他们就很习惯地采用母语也就是中文的写作习惯来套入英语的写作中。一般而言，学生想用英语表达含义或写作句子，但是我们仔细查看就不难发现，“中国式汉语”的教学方法一直根深蒂固地在学生的英语学习当中。一般来讲，英语中有些句子，其表达方式是和中文相同的。然而，有相当大部分的英语句子和中文的表达存在很大的差异。比如，“这朵花很漂亮”，在英语中的表述就与中文的不一样，英文中的表述采用感叹句的形式来表达。就学生语言获得的角度来说，学生并非单靠模仿和练习获得语言、作文的信息，学生会将听到的语言经内在的知识转换的过程产生句子。学生如果没有意识到这一点的话，在写作中要么就写“中国式英语”，要么遇到与中文结构有较大差距的句子时就不知如何来表达。这样就导致了这样的结果：学生的作文没有英语味，句子表达不符合英语习惯，支离破碎，更多的是中文的直接翻译或是直接拼凑。

由于新教材容量大、课时紧，多数教师只顾及赶教学进度，加上少数教师教法欠缺，没有从写的角度对教材进行深加工，以培养学生的口语表达、复述、改写等综合能力。对课后有关写作内容，课堂上也未给写作上的指导，草草收场。学生课下亦不放在心上，教师也不检查，或是检查不够及时，学生怕写，教师怕改，缺乏系统训练，直到初三下学期，为了应付考试，才临阵磨枪。有些学生认为学习英语听、说、读最重要，其次是写作。加之初中学生的书面表达受中考直接影响很大，他们的言语表达实际上是在模拟真实考试，因此，其书面表达事实上是“试卷作文”。写作的自我发挥余地少，很多学生寄希望于背范文，而不愿意花时间去练笔。必须在学习的过程中因为对英语的语法不熟悉，就是指学习过程中，学生有意识或潜意识的尝试将所学的规则通过广泛的套用在别处，例如，学生在学了“Ihavetogo”之后，会不自主的开始将“Imusttogo”，但是他们没有察觉到使用“must”时并不可以用“go“。

通过对学生的问卷，笔者发现不少学生由于不良写作习惯、生词干扰、语言知识掌握不熟等因素而影响了他们写作的信心，感到无话可说，并进而影响到他们写作的效果。初中英语新课程标准的实施为英语写作带来转机，我们应重新审视传统的英语写作教学模式，优化教材与教法，扭转当前英语写作中存在的种种不良现象。

教师自身不断发展的需要

在初中英语教学中，写作教学方法单一，写作批改辛苦耗时，而客观题为主的考试题型也在一定程度上阻碍了学生写作能力的发展。

单一的教学方法导致学生能力的单一。近年来英语教学改革取得了很大的成就，人们不断接受新的教学理念，活跃了课堂教学气氛，提高了学生的口语表达能力和交际能力。但从某种程度上说，忽视了学生的英语写作能力的培养，造成某些学生只会“说”不会“写”，“说”“写_脱离。甚至还有一部分教师片面理解教学工具的现代化。一节课不管是否需要，图像、声音等视听手段“一个都不能少_，就是少了对学生进行必要的书写和写作的示范，其结果是学生开口可以说几个句子，动笔则错误百出。很多教师视写作为对话和阅读的附属部分，课堂上用于指导学生写作的时间少，将其布置为课后作业，一带而过。他们的训练方法往往是：给出题目，提出要求，让学生在规定的时间内完成作文。教师批改后，再在课堂上作简要评讲。第一阶段由学生完成，第二阶段由教师完成。若无评讲，这种写作课就只有“写”这个唯一的阶段。有些教师不能摆正三个年级写作教学的不同要求，认为写就是写作文，就是中考试卷中的那种写作，对初中学生过早地提出了过高的写的要求，再加上写作教学中，多数教师缺乏科学和系统的写作教学方法，对母语迁移的负作用重视不够，考虑较多的足语言的准确性和格式的正确性，这种写作教学不能充分调动学生对写作的兴趣，容易使学生失去英语写作的热情，并在一定程度上纵容了学生一次成稿的做法，不利于培养学生的自主写作能力。

对大多数英语教师来说，最令他们气馁的是花了很多时间精力批阅讲解，但是学生英语写作程度却不见提升。大部分学生仅仅是一看下分数，就将批阅过发挥的作文束之高阁，对作文进行仔细阅读并以求改进写作的较少。因而也就导致了同样的错误不断地重复出现的英文作文中，同时，为了中考的考试成绩的追求，许多学生的写作，并非思想的表白，而是短时间内就急就章的议论或是叙述文，这样的写作训练习惯自然缺乏反诉思考和修改润色的历程。就初二年级下学期的教材来说，总共有7个unit,每个unit大约有16面内容，课程很紧，每天要抓学生默写、背诵、订正等要花大量时间。然而就评改任务来看，以每个班30人来计算，初中英文教师一般平均教2个班，合计60人，如果每个学期规定学生交7篇作文（因为有7个unit），再加上每次测验的作文，至少一学期10篇，平均一学期就得批改（10＋7）×60=1020篇作文，少有教师能负荷得了。因此教师对学生的作文评改多是以书面批改居多，想更深入地进行细致的修改与指导时间和精力都不够，这样的写作教学和作文批改达不到实际的效果。

研究方法及研究思路

合作学习在经过几十年的发展，出现了各种各样的模式。据有关资料显示，仅在美国，合作学习的方法与策略在目前就不下百种，这其中还不包括每一种方法的变式。本文主要介绍正式的合作性学习中的几个不同类型的合作学习法。

（1）小组分层计分法。小组分层计分法是合作学习最常见的一种形式，由斯莱文教授提出。它包括以下一系列常规活动：首先，教师给学生上一堂课(课堂授课)。然后，学生以能力异质的四人为一组，共同学习掌握所学材料(组建小组)。小组的学习策略要根据不同的学科而定。如数学，可能就会让学生们先做题目，然后对答案，再通过讨论来解决彼此答案中不一致的地方。而对拼字学习，学生们可以就拼写表进行相互训练；在社会科学方面，学生可以通过共同学习自己从课本中找出有关关键概念的信息。总之，不管是哪门学科，都鼓励学生不光要给出答案，还要尽量在组内充分阐述自己的思想观点和锻炼相应的技能。在小组学习期的最后，学生们需要进行一项个人小测验，测验由各组员独立完成(测试)。老师把小组中每个成员的分数累计起来，构成小组的总分，再采用一定的统计方法，根据每个人在自己过去分数基础上所提高的分数来评定其最后成绩(计算个人提高分)。

（2）复杂指导模式。这一模式由科恩首创，其名源于它给予学生的任务和学生团体的组织方式的复杂性。它原本被设计用于数学和科学学科的探究，现在已经扩展至其它领域。这种模式在任务的确定分配上类似于小组分层计分法(SIAl3)和吉格索法，但其探究活动是由教师和团体成员共同完成的。全班通常被分为由四五个人组成的多个小组，每个小组有不同的学习场所，分别探究不同的但有相互关联的问题，然后向全班报告其结论。在这种模式中，重要的是设计多能力的活动任务，以整合各种水平的行为表现，而不仅是认知任务。多能力任务的完成需要每一个个体贡献其知识和才能。与其它模式相比，这一模式的显着特点在于，它高度关注学生在课堂教学中的地位，强调为地位较低的学生寻求其胜任的任务来改善他们的地位。并鼓励他们发展其它领域的能力。

（3）学生成就区分法。这个是典型的合作教学，其运用就是根据能力水准，将学生分成四、五人一组，尽量使每一组的学生，具有最大的差异，无论从其能力、性别、或其它社会与心理区分，是一种异质性的分组，使每一组的结构类似于整个班级的结构。利用演绎法或讨论法学习新教材并提供作业单，作业单的学习与评价以组做单位，采用各种方式合作学习，学习至相当的程度再参加评量，评量的结果做组间比较。其实际作法，各组按练习中的表现：最优的与最优的比较，次好的与次好的比较，差的与差的比较，构成不同的分阵。各分阵的分数最高第一名所属的小组争到分，次高的争到分，以此类推，最后再表扬分数最高的一组。

（4）小组游戏竞赛法。学生也分成五人左右的小组，每组都是异质性小组，并有每周一次的竞赛。教学的程序，先由教师讲述第一节课，然后分给工作单。每一组的成员共同进行学习，并随时举行评量，以确定各组成员学习精炼程度。在小组练习之后，有学习竞赛活动。采能力分级法：各组同程度的成员互为比赛对手。例如：各组的第一名在第一桌比赛；第二名集合的第二桌比赛，每一个人所得的分数转换为团体分数，决定消毒在优胜名次。不论哪一级的选手，凡得第一名的均为团体赢得相同的分数。

（5）团体研究法。将教学内容分为几个主题，并将全班分为几个小组分别负责这些主题，而每一个小组成员再负责该组主题中的部分。接着，每一个小组便准备研讨其中负责的主题，并向全班其它同学报告。本法所强调的是分工合作与共同分享团体努力的成果。

（6）拼图式教学。将教材分成五个小题，全班学生分组，每组六个人，每一位负责一小题，另有一位候补，以备有人缺席。负责相同小题的各组代表先成立“专家组”，共同研究该小题到熟练。然后各自回到自己的小组，负责将小题的教材分发给同组其它同学，使大家对其产生兴趣。在学生回到各组之后，指导该组成员专研教材，并要求学生接受评估。其成绩就是个人在测试中所得的成绩。这个方法强调的是分工合作与个别享有个人努力的结果。

（7）共同学习法。强调的是建立团体成员的互动以及相互依赖的关系，共同学习法实施的时候，将学生分组，接着需要进一步安排教材和角色以增进相互依赖关系，最后可要求一组需要完成的一个共同的作品。

第二章英语合作教学的基本理论

“合作学习”的涵义及理论依据

“合作学习”的涵义

所谓“合作学习”，是指学生在小组或团队中为了完成共同的任务，有明确的责任分工的互助性学习。“合作学习”(CooperativeLearning)是20世纪70年代兴代中期至80年代取得了实质性进展的一种富有创意和实效的教学组织模式。“合作学习”理论的实施是学生有效地进行第二语言或英语学习的关键。Krashen(1985)在他的1nmltHypothesis中提出，第二语言或英语学习是一种高度合作及互动的过程。合作学习方式使得学习者更能获得语言能力，更能创造丰富、逼真的英语学习环境，使语言学习成为有意义的活动。越来越多的国内外教师参与了合作学习理论的研究和实践，积累了一定的教学实践经验，取得了一定成效。

Slavin（1979）认为合作学习是一种教学策略，让学生在一个小型合作团体或是小组中借熟练学习教材一起工作。这是学习的重要历程，旨在运用某种形式的小型学习团体，实施有系统计划的学习活动。合作学习是一个互动群体建构知识的模式，是一种重视学生经过互动来学习的教学策略。众多文献指出合作学习的确能增进学生的学习成效，都发现在合作学习的情景中学生会被同伴要求学习，学习逐渐变得有活力，并且还能促使同学之间学习进度的相等。通过小组讨论可以从事向他人解释、发现解答及讨论、辩论的活动，从而获得高层次的思考技能的发展。

有的学者认为合作学习并不是一种新的教学观念或教学方法。在过去的教学理论与实际教学中，一直有合作学习的踪迹。也有人认为合作学习所指的是两个人以上为一组同时参与某个活动，组内成员必须经过协调或沟通，以达到大家所认同的目标。合作学习假设参与活动的每个人都能够互相尊重、信赖、容纳别人了解组内目标并清楚知道自己所负担的责任，而合作的作业内容可以任意的形式。

从以上学者对合作学习的定义，可以归纳出合作学习的一个有系统的教学策略，结合教师的学习活动及社会互动等认知学习，强调学生在异质小组_同学习、分工合作以达成小组的学习目标，并培养学生人际关系互动合作的精神，增强学习动机促进学习的成效。近年来的研究也表明，合作学习能增加同伴间的积极互动，大面积提高学生的学业成绩，而且能加深师生间的沟通互动。同伴彼此之间能够学习较多的学习上的成功经验，使学生在情感支持和成功满足中产生较高的自我接纳及自尊心，合作动机和个人责任是合作学习产生良好教学效果的关键。

合作学习是指将学生适当分组，使其合作以达成教学目标的一种教学方式，学习者同心协力，亦可提升学习成效，增进学习迁移，培养学生批判思考的能力（Johnson&Johnson,1993）。陈琇娟（1999）认为合作学习是一种教学策略，教师将学生分配到小组里，在任务结构化的每个成员一起合作学习，并发挥其学习能力，直到成员完全了解并完成作业为止。林达森（2001）指出合作学习乃用合作的关系，让师生与同伴之间能够正向互动，藉以提升教学效能。

“合作学习”的理论依据

要想真正理解合作学习中生生互动的深层内涵，把握其精神实质，认识其科学性，还必须对其理论基础有一个全面的了解。我国的主体合作学习，作为发展性教学策略之一，将合作学习置于主体教育的理论背景下，从哲学、社会学和心理学的不同角度寻求理论支撑。

第一，动机理论。强调提供学习者完成目标的诱因，以激励其学习，因此，从动机理论观点来看，合作学习必须要让小组成员有共同学习的动机。“权利”、“成就”、“与人互动”是人类的基本需求，在学习情境中，如果能满足这些需求，就能够提升学习者的参与动机和团体发展。合作学习中，个体扮演的角色，会提升学习者的团体中的归属感、互赖性，却不会牺牲小组成员对成就内在需求。

某种程度的外在动机和内在动机是有兼容性的关系，甚至可以对个体的表现达到相辅相成的功效。“讯息型外在动机”，个体得到外在奖酬的目的是在肯定自我能力时，此外在动机是信息型的，个体藉由外在的诱因，进而知悉个体能力的相关讯息。外在的奖励可以让内在动机高的学习者证明自己的能力表现，促使其动机提升更为显著，甚至有助于创造力的激发。因为内、外动机对学习者能产生互相牵动的机制，所以教师在实行教学时，应该注意：第一，提升学生的自我效能感，借由设定合理的学习目标，以能力相仿的学生为楷模与提供和谐减低焦虑的学习环境，提升学习者的学习成效。第二，提升学生的内在动机：教师可以用有趣、新奇的教学方式或活动，提升学习者的注意力，并展现生活化的教材，让学习者体会学习的实用性和价值感，以延伸和持续学习者的学习动机。订立符合学生能力的教学目标，设立适合的目标，让学习者能够在学习的过程中，因为达到目标，而自我肯定学习能力，正是系统化教学设计概念改变的映证。借由同伴的楷模示范学习，互助讨论的方式，提供和谐的学习情境，是合作学习理论的展现。让学生在互助的气氛中，搭配难度适中的学习挑战；和生活连结的学习内容，使学习不再是封闭式的，如此一来才有改变并提升学生学习动机的机。

只有学生努力学习，能够达成指定目标时，才能够将学生的学习成就归于学习动机。而合作式的目标结构，即是和动机结合的学习表现。合作对学习情境，结合目标导向、目标结构和回馈机制，促使小组沉浸在正向互赖和互助的学习环境中，而提升学生的动机以达成目标。这样的学习模式创造唯有整个小组成功，才等于达成个人的目标的学习情境。加上小组共同学习经历挑战、解决问题达到成功的经验，都能提升学习者的自我价值感，而此自我价值感正是个人追求成功的内在动力。

第二，社会互赖理论。20世纪40年代兴起于美国，主要研究的是个体间在合作性和竞争性情境中相互影响时的行动效率、内在心理过程、互动方式及结果。它起源于格式塔心理学和勒温的群体动力理论，在1949年由道奇首次提出，后经约翰逊兄弟发展完善，形成理论体系。 社会互赖理论主要研究个体间在合作性和竞争性社会情境中相互影响的行动效率、内在心理过程、互动方式及结果。它通过积极互赖、消极互赖和无互赖等三种形式，分别产生促进性互动、反向互动和无互动，从而导致相应的结果。要使合作学习实施卓有成效，教师在教学设计整个过程中都要努力使学生之间产生积极互赖，尽可能地减少甚至避免消极互赖和无互赖。积极互赖的运作是通过加强个人责任感来实现，而促进性互动则是强调社交技能和小组反思。

社会互赖理论强调在合作学习中，小组成员朝目标努力，致使合作学习得以发挥效果。小组成员在学习过程中，为了完成小组目标而形成互赖，产生了团体内的激励结构，使团体成为一“动力整体”。团体组员间的互赖情境、面对面互相沟通和相互鼓励等技巧，可以促进成员间的正向积极互动，以达成团体目标，发挥合作学习的成效。另一方面，团体因为出于积极且正向互动的情境下，成员彼此的鼓励，不仅可以减缓小组成员学习过程伴随产生的焦虑，且勇于接受挑战和乐于承担责任。

第三，建构主义理论。在“客观主义”的实践主义知识论受到近代许多思想家和哲学家的批评之后，发展以“主观主义”的“建构主义”的知识论，倡导建构主义知识论的派别很多，都强调学习者的学习过程是主动的建构，学习者利用先前的先补充知识，来建构属于自己的知识，所以建构的的过程和结果，都可能不同，所以没有所谓的标准答案。学习者建构所获得的知识是认知世界本质所作的一种解释，认知世界是不能透过语言或文字来达成学习的目的的，由于学习先前的经验的不同，自然所建构出来的认知，经由个人的经验组织，其结果也不尽相同，也就是说，学习者只能自行建构、解释、塑造有意义的知识结构，并据此成为自己与外在世界联系的指标，预测自己的行为，解释外在世界。

学习者经由建构所得的知识仅仅是其对世界的一种解释，所以知识是不能经由语言或文字传达的，因为在传达的过程中都可能产生因个人经验而造成意义的转化。而学生也无法如教师所预期的学习整套知识，将建构主义应用在学习上，可以知道教师的“教”并不等同于学生的“学”；所以教学活动不应该为教而设计，而应该为学而设计，从建构学习来看师生角色的改变，教师从过去传授者的角色转变为辅导者、指导者与教练的角色，其主要的职责是将学习内容建构于适当的学习情境中，而学生也必须由被动接受资讯的角色，转变为积极主动的学习者，在学习情境中自行整理与建构完整的知识。

就建构主义的教学方向来看，建构主义主张学生是学习的主体，学生必须主动参与学习，而教师必须营造有利于学生的学习情境，让学生和对外在的本体世界，透过学生先前的经验利用内省和自我对话的方式来修建知识。

就建构主义的教学课程来看，课程设计并不是为了教师教学的方便而设计课程，而是为了让学生能达到学习的目标、有意义的学习而设计课程，可见教师的教学，并不等于学生的学习，必须以学生为学习的主体，这就是教学活动不应该为教而设计，而应该为学而设计。此外在建构主义课程的设计中，教师和学生所扮演的角色不同于以往讲述式的教学，教师必须将课程的内容转化为学习的情境，并提高教学生学习的兴趣与学习的效果，学生在教师所营造的情境中，来组织以往的经验、解释本体的现实，进而建构出自己的知识。

第四，社会学理论。人类的行为是人的思想的表现，精神分析大师Freud认为，借助人们外在的行为可以推敲人的内心世界。所有的外在行为都可以透过外力来加以改变，借助增强的过程可以强化人们正向的行为、削弱负面的行为，使得人们的行为更符合社会道德的规范。在教育层面上业是如此，正增强与负增强原来的运用，可以随时地引导学生的学习朝着正向方面的成长。人类行为道德的培养是经过循序渐进的步骤与过程而来的，在道德成规前需要更多外力的控制使个体行为符合社会规范，进而能使团体养成表现符合社会规范的行为，最后内化的个人都内心中，则人的行为道德发展完全内化成为人的生活习惯。换句话说，学习是社会情境下的产物，也是一种促进个体认知结构发展的过程。人们的认知学习发展，都是源自于个体和社会情境的失衡所产生的，然而个体在寻求认知机构再度回到平衡的过程中，唯有靠在社会情境中与他人进行互动学习。不仅靠个人的认知结构的重组与整合，有许多来自于他人的经验也提供楷模学习的机会，而在认知学习的过程中，可以记住外力的协助来达到学习的目标及学习行为的强化。从社会学习的观点来看，合作学习的教学方法是透过小组的学习活动进行，过程中借助任务的分工与角色的扮演来强化学生正向的学习行为，养成好的学习行为与学习心态。同时在小组的学习活动中，来自于不同特质的个体都能提供小组成员中的每个人不同的认知理论，进而产生楷模学习的效果，增加学生学习的成就。

“合作学习”的类型

合作学习根据学生能力的不同，进行异质性的分组，小组成员共同分享资源，互相依赖，不仅共同达成所指定的任务，更在过程中培养人际沟通与协调的能力。透过小组成员之间的分工合作，共同用资源，互相支持而进行学习，并用小组本位的评核及分组比赛，制造团队比赛的心理气氛，激学习动机以增进学习的成效。合作学习具特常互补、资源共享、个别计量绩效、成功机会均等教学特色。合作学习强调将学生置于小组中，并促进小组的合作学习，虽然合作学习的类型与重点有所不同，但合作学习大多具有以下共同特性：

（一）异质分组（H）

异质分组系指依学生的学习能力、性别及社经背景等，将学生分配到不同的小组中，让其彼此互相。异质的方式主要提供学生有更多的机会认识不同的学习对象，分享彼此的经验，从更多样的观点学习经验而达到学习目标。

（二）积极互赖（P）积极互赖指学生能知觉到自己与小组同学是紧密相关的，小组内每一个成员都应该共同努力，以完成任务。合作学习时，每一学生都应分配的资源，并确保所有小组成员都学会。

（三）面对面互动（Face-to-faceinteraction）

透过面对面互动，学生有机会互相讨论，彼此帮忙完成任务，并有效地刺激学生从事高层次的认知活动。合作学习当中并不能以某一个成员的成功来代表小组，教师必须评估各小组每一学生的学习情形，并将结果回馈于各个小组的每一成员，让每个人都能感受到自己和其它人学习成功的重要性。

（四）社会技巧（Socialskills）

在合作学习情境中，为使学生能有效沟通，教师需教导学生应具备的社会技巧，使学生能成功的与他人互动学习。合作学习小组的每一成员必须进行两方面的学习，其一：与学业有关的任务工作，其二：参与小组学习必备的人际技巧和小团体技巧，此种能力合称为小组工作（Johnsonetal,1993）。这些沟通、互动的社会技巧，应在合作学习教学中教给学生。这正是一般传统教学法所无法提供的，虽无法从分数上比较出来，却是有效互动与往后人生发展所需学习的能力。

（五）团体历程（Groupprocessing）

团体历程强调的是认知反省的工作，小组分析其目标达成程度及工作状况，以及行动表现是否有助于目标的达成，并决定何者宜继续存在，何者宜调整的活动，并合作努力达成小组目标。

合作学习和英语写作教学之间的联系

合作学习是英语教学常用的教学方法之一，国内外有许多学者进行合作学习在英语教学的研究。赖美雯（2002）探讨台湾生对于合作学习应用在英文课的看法及成效，其调查发现合作学习对学生的英语学习能力及个人学习动机等，有良好的成效，并且有助于学生的沟通能力、人际关系及社会发展。秦翠虹（2003）则是探讨合作学习对国小英语教学的成效，发现合作学习组的学生其英语学习成就较高，且从学习者反应及观察中发现，利用合作学习的方式，除了提升学习者的英语能力之外，还可建立学习者的信心与兴趣。杨雅惠（2004）在“合作学习法对生英语学习与学习态度上的效益”研究中也提出，合作学习可以增进学习者的学习动机及学习态度。

有学者以小组合作学习的方式探究阅读英文名著小说对初中生英语字汇习得的效益，研究后发现接受小组合作学习的学生，字汇习得的效益显着高于传统教师教学法。劉青欣（2003）利用合作学习在国小英语教学的研究、邱裕惠（2002）探讨「合作学习在英语教室的应用研究、梁彩玲（2002）探讨“合作学习在英语教学的实施及成效”等，对于英语教学皆有显着的成效。合作学习可以促使概念改变，如此更显示出合作学习的教学法兵可行性及必要性（黄建瑜，1999）。

在国外的研究中，Yu（2005）表示利用合作学习的方式，可以提初中国大学生的社会认知能力。Ghaith（2001）探讨中学生对于利用STAD合作学习的看法，调查发现，曾经参与STAD合作学习的学生，对于之前利用STAD学习的方法皆保持正向的看法，并且愿意在其它的课程中继续使用这样的学习方法。

Ghaith（2003）以问卷调查比较合作学习、个别学习和竞争学习，对135位年龄在18岁至25岁的EFL学习者，进行学习方式对学习成就与教室气氛关系间的研究。经研究后发现，EFL的学习者在合作的情境中，能有正向的教室气氛，亦即学习者只要努力达到小组的目标，就能有相同的机会成功，并获得个人该有的分数。而且，在大家越努力之下，越会发觉教师和同学愈是喜欢、关心他自己，也因此使教室气氛更有于学习。Kagan（1995）也证实上述看法，其从语言习得的输入变项（inputvariable）、输出（outputvariable）变项和内容（contextvariable）变项来检视合作学习，提出合作学习对语言习得有正面的影响。

Jones、Levin与Beitael（2000）以结合语意情境（semantic-context）或记忆术学习策略，将100位六年级学生依三种不同的学习/测试方式：个别-个别（II）、配对个别（PI）、及配对-配对（PP），进行字汇测验及故事情节的保留效果。研究后发现，（1）学生在记忆术情境下表现比较好。（2）采用PP、PI的方式，学生在两项的学习效果比较好。（3）PP组的学生，在测试时对其回答比较有信心。Lonning,.（1993）针对「合作学习对十年级普通科学学生于口语互动及概念改变教学的学习效果作实征性研究，发现合作学习能使学生有较高的学习成就；学生也能应用增进学习的口语互动方式。为适应世界地球村的来临，各国均强化其英语教学，而英语教学实施以来，学生学习成绩落差明显。因此，对于成绩较差的学生实施补救教学有其实施的必要；而在师资与硬设备不足情况下，本研究的补救教学改以多媒体合作学习方式施行，才能激起学生学习兴趣，鼓励学生快乐学习，学得更好更有自信。

传统的教育观认为，学习是获取知识，是获得更好的成绩。但是合作学习不仅仅在提高学生的学习成绩，而其在此过程中形成学生积极的学习态度、发展批判性的思维能力、发散思维能力、创造思考能力等方面有着积极的作用。“如果学生不能够把所学知识和技能应用于他人的合作性活动之中的话，那么这些知识和技能都是无用的。……这种教育是失败的。”在英语写作教学中，运用合作学习的教学方法，为学生创造条件参与到英语交际中创造了机会，交际内容贴近学生的生活、学习，这对提高学生运用英语语言的能力，特别是口头交际能力起到了极大的作用，无形中培养了他们的英语语感。如此一来，在写作英语的过程中能更轻松愉悦。从而可以避免传统课堂教师讲、学生听的教学模式；除少数的学生外，其它学生很少有发言的机会，有利于提高学生英语口语交际能力。这样合作学习不仅仅停留在掌握知识和技能的水平上，而是最终改变传统教学片面强调竞争的格局。“任何学习必然存在于某一具体环境之中，是通过和他人互动来完成的。互动的性质和意义是成功学习的关键。语言学习尤其如此，因此语言学习的一个重要组成部分就是用目的语来交流互动。”合作学习可以减轻学习者参加语言交易际时产生的焦虑心理，增强自信心，变消极接受为主动吸收，从与他人的交往活动中察觉个体的自我价值。合作学习提倡教师与学生、学生与学生、教师与教师进行多边互动，并由此推动教学过程的演进。在合作学习中，成员间由于彼此之间的信息差而有了相互交换的条件，因此产生大量的协同和沟通工作，从而出现了更多的交互修正，促进学习任务的完成。一般认为学生在学校的学习涵盖三个领域：认知、情意、技能。而合作学习教学法能增进认知、情谊、技能三方面的学习效果。

认知方面

在传统的课堂中，似乎只有教师清楚教学目标、课程目标及评分标准。但透过实施合作教学法，教师必须教导让学生更清楚课程目的，认识评量规则及尺度，以便进行同级考评。所以合作教学法有助于师生更清楚教学目标、课程目的及评分标准。增加运用高层次思考能力的机会：合作教学法增加学生投入高层次思考的时间，包括思考、比较作品的差异和沟通协调。同伴互评的时候，学生能透过评价作品记忆给予回馈的机会，必须不断进行高层次的认知思考活动。

澄清问题：学生透过他们的评价发现学习上的问题，在接受并给予回馈的过程中，学生会不断寻找问题、理解问题、澄清问题，从中发现自己在概念认知上的问题，并借此必须沟通与讨论对问题的看法，而有机会渐次澄清问题，避免在下次的学习中再犯同样的错误。

促进批判、自省、假设认知等高层次思考能力。在评价其它人作品时，先要观摩别人，批判优缺点、讨论等，同时也能自我省察自己作品的优缺点，并在下一轮修改作业时进行自我调节学习。

情谊方面

当学生知道自己的作文要被同伴阅读修改的时候，为避免丢脸，他们会更审慎地写作，因而上交的作文质量会更高。

学生对同伴评论的讨论反应比教师评论热烈。因为教师往往只是纠正作文中的错误之处，讨论也仅仅只是提流于如何改正错误。而同伴评审稿件通常针对他们不清楚之处，或不符合写作指引之处，基于同伴并非专业，看法也未必正确的心理，学生会比较顾及讨论。在讨论的过程中，评价者与受评者重新思考文稿，因而彼此作文都获得改善。

强化学习动机：由于个体的自我意识及同伴的压力，每一个成员都要努力贡献，一旦开始参与，他们的模仿焦虑情绪降低，学习动机就提高了。

技能方面

英文论文优秀范文模板 第二篇

（1） 不同观点列举型（ 选择型 ）

There is a widespread concern over the issue that __作文题目_____. But it is well known that the opinion concerning this hot topic varies from person to person. A majority of people think that _ 观点一________. In their views there are 2 factors contributing to this attitude as follows： in the first place， ___原因一， in the second place， ___原因二_____. So it goes without saying that ___观点一_____.

People， however， differ in their opinions on this matter. Some people hold the idea that ___观点二_______. In their point of view， on the one hand， ___原因一_______. On the other hand， ____原因二_____. Therefore， there is no doubt that ___观点二______.

As far as I am concerned， I firmly support the view that __观点一或二______. It is not only because ________， but also because _________. The more _______， the more ________.

（2）利弊型的议论文

Nowadays， there is a widespread concern over (the issue that)___作文题目______. In fact， there are both advantages and disadvantages in __题目议题_____. Generally speaking， it is widely believed there are several positive aspects a ww s follows. Firstly， ___优点一______. And secondly ___优点二_____.

Just As a popular saying goes， “every coin has two sides”， __讨论议题______ is no exception， and in another word， it still has negative aspects. To begin with， ___缺点一______. In addition， ____缺点二______.

To sum up， we should try to bring the advantages of __讨论议题____ into full play， and reduce the disadvantages to the minimum at the same time. In that case， we will definitely make a better use of the ____讨论议题___.

as is shown/indicated/illustrated by the figure/percentage in the table(graph/picture/pie/chart)， ___作文题目的议题_____ has been on rise/ decrease (goesup/increases/drops/decreases)，significantly/dramatically/steadily rising/decreasing from______ in _______ to ______ in _____. From the sharp/marked decline/ rise in the chart， iit goes without saying that ________.

There are at least two good reasons accountiing for ______. On the one hand， ________. On the other hand， _______ is due to the fact that ________. In addition， ________ is responsible for _______. Maybe there are some other reasons to show ________. But it is generally believed that the above mentioned reasons are commonly convincing.

As far as I am concerned， I hold the point of view that _______. I am sure my opinion is both sound and well-grounded.

英文论文优秀范文模板 第三篇

Beginning

l In this paper, we focus on the need for

l This paper proceeds as follow.

l The structure of the paper is as follows.

l In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related c

oncepts

l To begin with we will provide a brief background on the

Introduction

l This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the proble

m and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are def

ined.

l Details on __ and __ are discussed in later sections.

l In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various sit

uations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely p

ossibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stoc

hastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy ser

vice rule are considered.

Review

l This review is followed by an introduction.

l A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in ___ and ___ is prese

nted in Section 2.

l In the next section a brief view of the .... is given.

l In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard

to ...

l Section 2 reviews relevant research related to __.

l Section briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action,

while looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and out

lines the need for development of possibility methods.

Body

l Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importanc

l Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision‑making

logic.

l Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes ___

l Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural langua

ge understanding.

l Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in t

erms of fuzzy time‑window

l Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the

...

l Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..

and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.

l Section 3 describes a new measure of __.

l Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analys

is of __.

l Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.

l Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision

rules

l The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 descr

ibes the __ strategies.

l Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed mod

el.

l Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost va

riance investigation.

l Section 4 gives a specific example of ___.

l Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory proc

ess.

l Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Sec

tion 2 and 3.

l Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of __ and illustrat

e its use on experimental data.

l Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model .

l Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.

l Section 6 illustrate the model with an example.

l Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discu

ssed very briefly in Section 2.

l In Sectio n 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model

of human DM system

l In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ...

scheme must satisfy.

l In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness the

orems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discours

e is order‑dense.

l In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study

currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct members

hip functions.

l In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of

inference experiments...

This Section

l In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is

designed are described.

l We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which

are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.

Next Section

l The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer i

mplementation of such fuzzy logic statements.

l However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications

the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.

l The three components will be described in the next two section, and an e

xample of __ analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate th

eir use.

l We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following

sections.

l The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for argu

ments based on __

Summary

l This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration

in section 5.

l Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.

l Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.

l Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the

paper.

l Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized

l The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are d

rawn.

l Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.

Chapter 0. Abstract

l A basic problem in the design of __ is presented by the choice of a __ r

ate for the measurement of experimental variables.

l This paper examines a new measure of __ in __ based on fuzzy mathematics

which overcomes the difficulties found in other __ measures.

l This paper describes a system for the analysis of the __.

l The method involves the construction of __ from fuzzy relations.

l The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.

l The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile __ algor

ithms.

l The usefulness of __ is also considered.

l A brief methodology used in __ is discussed.

l The analysis is useful in __ and __ problem.

l A model is developed for a __ analysis using fuzzy matrices.

l Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a __ are presented and

justified.

l The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.

l Results of an experimental applications of this __ analysis procedure ar

e given to illustrate the proposed technique.

l This paper analyses problems in

l This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...

l This paper includes an illustration of the ...

l This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching

l Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which

the __ in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.

l The main emphasis is placed on the problem of __

l Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.

l The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of

: __,__

l The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and __ are likewise rep

resented by linguistic variables.

l A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure

Chapter 1. Introduction

Time

l Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive

l Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world

l The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the

l The development of ... is explored

l During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a vari

ety of directions,

l The concept of __ was investigated quite intensively in recent years

l There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the

advent of ...

l A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...

l A __ is a latecomer in the part representation arena.

l At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of __

l Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, t

he efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.

l The pioneer work can be traced to __ [1965].

l To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from

ready to be used in commercial systems.

Objective / Goal / Purpose

l The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:

l The ultimate goal of the __ system is to allow the non‑experts to

utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to

provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for ___.

l The paper concerns the development of a __

l The scope of this research lies in

l The main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decis

ion making.

l These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as

to permit ...

l The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows:

l The primary purpose/consideration/objective of

l The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide

l The main objective of such a ... system is to

l The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probabilit

y distribution.

l In order to achieve these objectives, an __ must meet the following requi

rements:

l In order to take advantage of their similarity

l more research is still required before final goal of ... can be complete

l In this trial, the objective is to generate...

l for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues

l A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently d

eveloped procedure for the __.

l For an illustrative purpose, four well‑known OR problems are studi

ed in presence of fuzzy data: __.

l A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for

structuring ..methods

l This illustration points out the need to specify

l The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.

l Chapter 2. Literature Review

l A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics liter ature, for

example, regarding __

l A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decad

l A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties assoc

iated with __.

l There is considerable amount of literature on planning

l However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in x

l Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still un

der investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete application

l Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.

l Problem of __ draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.

l Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of

l Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design proced

ure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.

l Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabili

stic in nature.

l The central issue in all these studies is to

l The problem of __ has been studied by other investigators, however, thes

e studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.

l Applied ... techniques to

l Characterized the ... system as

l Developed an algorithm to

l Developed a system called ... which

l Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce

l Emphasized the need to

l Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology

l A comprehensive study of the .. has been undertaken

l Much work has been reported recently in these filed

l Proposed

l Presented

l State that

l Point out that the problem of

l Described

l Illustrated

l Indicated

l Has shown / showed

l Address

l Highlights

l A study on ...was done / developed by []

l Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only with

l The approach taken by [] is

l The system developed by [] consists

l A paper relevant to this research was published by []

l []'s model requires consideration of ..

l []' model draws attention to evolution in human development

l []'s model focuses on...

l Little research has been conducted in applying ... to

l The published information that is relevant to this research...

l This study further shows that

l Their work is based on the principle of

l More history of ... can be found in __ et al. [1979].

l Studies have been completed to established

l The ...studies indicated that

l Though application of __ in the filed of __ has proliferated in recent y

ears, effort in analyzing __, especially __, is lacking.

Problem / Issue / Question

l Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing pla

nning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model. They tend to span bro

ad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.

l Remedy / solve / alleviate these problems

l ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolved

l Two major problems have yet to be addressed

l An unanswered question

l This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.

l An additional research issue to be tackled is ....

l Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussed

l The three prime issues can be summarized:

l The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...

l There have b een many attempts to

l It is expected to be serious barrier to

l It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.

l There are several ways to get around this problem.

l As difficult as it seems to be, __ is by no means new.

l The problem is to recognize __ from a design representation.

l A __ problem can trace its roots to __.

l __ [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the pr

oblem.

l Several problems are associated with them.

l Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major ob

stacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.

l Most problems in practice are complicated

l More problem surface here.

l Hamper effort toward a __ system

l In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise __

knowledge, a __ program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the

statistical analysis of a sample population of __

l The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempti

ng to develop

l This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership fu

nction determination.

l However, attempts to quantify the __ have met both theoretical and empir

ical problems.

l It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological fr

amework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the

problems of __ and __.

Chapter 3. Proposed methodology

Assumption

l In the case when the assumption of a __ seems to be too restrictive or i

nadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, . given by a fuzzy

set in the space of control stages, may be applied.

l We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and th

e fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, __, which stems from t

he problem's nature.

l An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assum

ption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of th

e experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.

l Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which th

e expert is indifferent.

l Main simplifying assumptions are:

l This, in our view, is a questionable assumption.

Outline / Structure / Module

l An outline of the research

l Information is incorporated within the scheme

l Is built into ... structure

l A nice modular structure.

l The principles of ... are applied as modularized criteria

Classification

l A __ system comprises three main components:

l Must decompose the original .. into a set of ..

l Consists of the following steps:

l This is summarized in the following steps:

l Can be broadly classified into the following areas:

l Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing the

l Can allow further breadth of application of ...into more

l The following steps should be followed

l __ can be classified by a different ways.

l Based on the __, one may classify __ into the following:

l This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.

System

l Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal wit

h problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.

l The system consists of both . .. and ...

l The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three le

vels.

l expert system domains are area of expertise

l To develop a __ system for __, the following factors must be considered:

l The system has been developed / designed to determine

l The system has proven to be able to

l The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domain

l The system comprises a ... with

l The system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the ... technique

l The system environment must be relatively stable

l The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve ...

l The development of a __ system has two stages: __ stage and __ stage.

l The most essential part of .. system is the ...

l The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in t

he development of

l An automated system was developed for

l In this case, the system can be considered to be generative.

l An interactive automatic ... system

l A .. is commonly thought of as a truly integrated .. system

l Should be capable of being generated from a ... system

l __ is an important part of the integrated system.

l The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separat

e problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.

l The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in t

he sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antece

dent of the next rule base.

l The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic te

rms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.

Computer System

l The system has been implemented using Prolog language in an MS‑DOS

environment. Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible e

nvironment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.

l The current version of the __ program when compiled with WATFOR77 result

s in an executable code of about 270K bytes. Typical run time, when run on a

XX computer (an IBM compatible machine) operating at Mhz with 640K RAM, r

anges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size (or complexity) of the problem.

l Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C‑language and

directly linked to the Prolog environment.

l The __ process, once the __'s data has been entered, requires approximat

ely 180 seconds.

l It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386BR>

209;based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.

l The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the __ method

and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler

that supports the math co‑processor.

l Lisp, Prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development tim

l Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the compute

l An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this study

l Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitat

ions.

l While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five

criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria -- the com

putation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.

l This combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriente d prog

ramming environment (Smalltalk‑80 system) to solve problems encountered

in construction ___.

Method / Approach / Study / Process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formu

la / Technique

l A discussion is presented of a problem-solving system

l To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be a

pplied.

l In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of the

l Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, no

ne are generally accepted

l This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of

the report.

l This can be accomplished by

l This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step a

s follows:

l The above preliminary analysis has provided important information

l Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...

l These concepts have been applied to

l On the basis of the concept mentioned above,

l This can be achieved by

l This fact suggests that a new concept

l This was accomplished by taking ...

l The preparatory stage is very time consuming process.

l Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibility

l There is little hope of achieving successful ...

l There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most ..

so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception of

l Only a few studies can be found.

l It is a very tedious process to go through

l It is only when .. has been completed that .. may be effected

l The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.

l These approaches are sometimes very tedious.

l Several techniques can be used

l A polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows

l A __ model is constructed/formulated using __.

l A __ model represents an __ by its __.

l A process decision model captures the logic essential to

l From the equation above, __ is equal to the summation of __ times the ..

l The validity of a __ model can be checked using Euler's formula.

l Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether ... or ...

l Equations for __ need to be derived and implemented in the system.

l A number of heuristic rules have been developed for

l Optimum .. techniques can be made more reliable by ... so that

l An algorithm based on the characteristic ... is used to determine

l   Euler's formula states the following:

l The completed model should agree with the formula.

l For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object i

s necessary

l Engineering design models are very well defined; therefore,

l To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to

be useful.

Point of View

l from an implementation standpoint,

l From the point of view of this application,

l From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named ___ (CR

I for short).

l Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggr

egation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.

l From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC requ

ire a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.

l The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends t

o distort, destroy, and g enerally defeat the purpose of using a screw [Kusiak

AI Implications for CIM ]

Justification

l We choose the so called __ in our experiment because it has received wid

e acceptance and can

l Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environmen

t in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.

l The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator

to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimat

l This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since i

t is natural and easy to implement.

l A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set i

n a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc. Such functi

ons are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the u

se of fuzzy arithmetic.

l It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on whi

ch our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature. See

n in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the

characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.

l Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient wa

y to express their domain knowledge. This explains why most FLCs are based on

the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy _if

‑the_ rule.

Chapter 4. Examples

Example/ Data

l The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in w

hich __ was measured between x and x using a __ technique.

l The data consists of over __ measurements.

l An example of __ is discussed and the control rules of __ are compared w

ith a __

l Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are

__, __, etc.

l The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustratin

g the computational procedure discussed.

l This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual __,

or a very small group of __, with no enough data to be studied statistically,

can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.

l There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deser

ve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those

wishing this level of detail.

l Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.

Comparisons

l As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process plann

ing point of view will be discussed.

l The method of using __ to implement __ described by Zadeh (1973) appeare

d more suitable

l As discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],

Relation

l We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.

l The relationships appear very complicate

l Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the tas

k variables and the human operator's characteristics.

l These methods are based on the relationship between ... and ...

l The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establ

ish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify

these relationships.

l This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.

l The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product.

Importance

l The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based

decision making.

Consideration / Attention

l Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure

l Such a formulation does not change further considerations.

l Considerable attention has been paid to

l Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.

l Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid ...

l Primary consideration is given to ... components, though others can be ac

commodated

l After ... has been defined by ..., a carefully analysis is carried out/p

erformed to determine

l A number of factors such as ...need to be taken into consideration befor

e making the appropriate decision.

l It should be noted that

l It is important to point out that ...

l These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of prov

iding ...

l We should stress the fundamental importance of the __

Chapter 5. Results.

Advantages / Disadvantage

l One of the major advantages of this new measure of __ is that it can be

applied to the experimental study of

l One advantage of using a .. is the ease of preparing it.

l The __ system is versatile

l It has a very fast decision making process

l All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.

l It can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocesso

r‑based environment.

l It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.

l The advantages of using a __ to represent __ are the following:

l However, __ is not without its shortcomings.

l In most cases, the ___ shows an improvement over the existing ___.

l Compared to the existing __, the impacts of the __ are generally reduced

by 5% to 9%.

l The _best case_ results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.

l Most of the existing works based on __ approach can only recognize a __

l Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to __.

l Some other advantages of __ are the following:

l The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of part

l It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system

modeling that was impossible in practice.

l There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefi

ts, the use of __,

l The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional

__ approaches.

l This combines the best features of both techniques

l Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing

a __ platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge manag

ement activities in virtual communities.

Results

l An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the dat

a provided

l Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this review

l Based on the information contained in this

l The result can be categorized into nine classes

l The results are illustrated by an example

l The experimental results for each __ time are reported in Table 2.

l From the results obtained so far, it seem that

l Because of the inaccuracy of the ..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as

l Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from complet

ion.

l The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total c

osts .

l Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less

fuzzy and more detailed.

Chapter 6. Conclusion

l From the discussion, one may conclude that ...

l Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that

l The conclusions drawn are also valid

l In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of __ lies no

t only in...

l We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of

__ based on fuzzy sets.

l Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this area

l A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve __ selection problems interwo

ven with imprecise data

l Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the __

compatibility in achieving prescribed __ projectiles in any level of the hiera

rchy is made possible.

l This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the __ p

rocess and __ concept.

l The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback

information for improvements for __ work.

l The scope of this contribution was to introduce a __ method.

l In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for __ a

nalysis in a fuzzy environment.

Future Research

l Thus, first extension of the approach could be,

l Present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory applicat

ion to

l Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought t

hrough additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of

the scheduling activity.

Tables and Figures

l Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.

l The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1.

l The __ may be depicted as in Figure 1.

l Figure x shows the schematic diagram of the

l Figure 1 though 2 provide a ... that

l the architecture of this expert system for .... is illustrated in Figure

l Figure 2 gives the outline of an ... system

l Table shows the

l as shown in Table 1 and 2

l This concept is illustrated in Figure 2

l At the top of Table __ are shown two blocks of data.

l Each table or matrix has constructs __ through __ as row‑headings,

__ through __ as column‑headings.

l A table of .. is developed and significant recommendations are made.

CONJUGATION

To Indicate Addition

l additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, beside

s, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further

, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too

, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speaking

To Indicate Cause and Effect

l accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short

, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, truly

To indicate Comparison

l in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternatively

To Indicate Concession

l after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, eve

n so , I admit, naturally, of course

To Indicate Contrast

l and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in

contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normal

ly, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortun

ately,

To Indicate Time Relationships

l after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soo

n as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, befor

e, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately,

later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, t

hereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, while

To Indicate Special Features or Examples

l for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words

, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this re

spect, theoretically, as mentioned before / above

To Indicate Summary

l in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude

, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,

VERB PHASE

l build a .. model

l build up the key link

l began a new era in ...

l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throu

l can result in

l carries out ... tasks

l production information in order to simultaneously

l contains all information necessary to describe

l do not make use of production information

l deals with

l end with failure

l fetch the information from the model directly

l has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of /

been recognized as

l BE aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with /

considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a compo

site component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an exa

mple / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to / more suitable to / o

riented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in th

e complex task of / shown in / used to effectively guide the search

l makes use of

l make up

l meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upo

n it

l must be justified

l point out

l play an important role

l relates to

l rely on

l satisfy the needs

l determine the total requirements for the ...

l uses ... as a key to search for...

l without relying on

l will be available/ performed/ overlooked

NOUN PHASE

l a basic technical function of

l a critical need

l a key / principle feature of

l a substantial impact on

l an intensive review was conducted

l an increasing need for expanding the application of ....

l an important component / function / aspect / issue

l each rule is numbered in sequence

l each of these involves

l for this calculation, it is necessary to define

l in the physical environment / integration of

l in the reality of situations where …

l many aspects of

l most past efforts have been spent on ...

l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.

l sources of additional information on ... are listed

l systematic and rationally structured format

l the basis on which a range of ...operations can be established is shown

l THE basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesi

s / candidate list of / concept of ... has attracted wide interest / functio

n is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functi

ons

l the number of parts needed to

l the ab ove statement means that

l the output data is passed to

l the proposed method / underlying principle

l the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, should

l this information resides in

l this process is composed of ... different ... operation

l along with the use of

l concerning general aspects of

l due to

l for later use in generating...,

l in turn,

l IT IS believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident

/ appears / implies that / intended for / of no important to

l it can be claimed/concluded that

l it demonstrates the decisions required of

l it also provides information to ..

l it becomes essential to

l let ... be the probability that

l once... is written, it is compiled into...

l suppose it is observe

英文论文优秀范文模板 第四篇

【摘 要】中国矿业发展至今，走过了引进消化、自主创新、技术输出的发展历。单一的英语阅读难以满足高层次人才输出研究成果的要求。矿业工程研究生科技英文论文写作能力的培养成为矿业工程人才培养的课题之一。结合中国学生英语应试教育的现状，采用精读高水平矿业科技英文论文、按照英文科技论文要求写好矿业科技中文论文、以中文论文为基础重写英文论文、经过专业机构和专家精修和润色论文、学生与修改专家的深入交流而完成论文是快速提升研究生矿业科技英文论文写作水平有效的培养模式。

【关键词】矿业工程 科技论文 研究生培养 英文写作能力

一、 引言

矿产资源是人类社会赖以生存和发展的基础物质材料，矿业是国民经济建设的基础性产业。新中国成立以来，矿业经过了三个发展时期，即引进消化的起步期，自主开发的发展期和向外输出技术的扩展期。三个时期的矿业发展给国民经济建设提供了重要的矿产资源支撑和支持，积极推进了国家的经济与社会发展。

矿业发展的不同时期，国内外交流的深度和广度是不同的。对于引进消化的起步期，主要是通过引进国外先进技术与设备，消化吸收后应用于国内的矿业开发与利用。这一时期的矿业科技人员，主要是到国外学习，阅读国外技术资料和文献，吸收国外先进的技术和知识，通过提高应用先进技术的能力和水平来实现矿业的开发利用。这一时期矿业开发与利用，要求矿业科技人员具有良好的英语阅读能力。20世纪50年代，中国的矿业发展处于这样的起步期，当时大量的矿业科技人员出国前苏联，学习矿业开发与利用知识，对中国的矿业起步起到了积极和重要的作用。

20世纪60年代至80年代，中国的矿业主要是自力更生、自主发展的时期，这一时期的矿业科技人员，主要是利用从国外学到和掌握的一些知识和技术对中国的矿业自主开发利用，矿业发展是缓慢的，资源开发利用的程度是很低的，因而经济社会的发展也相对比较迟缓。20世纪80年代以后，随着改革开放政策的实施，矿业发展迅速，短短20年，中国的矿业开发利用水平就已经接近国外的先进水平。这一时期，矿业科技人员走出去、引进来，进行广泛的国际学术和技术交流，广泛推进了中国的矿业发展。这一时期的矿业科技人员，要求具有良好的英语阅读和口头表达能力。21世纪头十年，中国的矿业发生了翻天覆地的变化，资源节约型、环境友好型发展模式已经成为矿业开发的唯一模式，科学技术成为矿业开发的决定性因素，因此，中国的矿业开发与利用技术开始走到了世界先进行业。矿业技术走出国门，输出技术与设备已经成为21世纪20年代中国矿业发展的趋势之一。在这样的时期，矿业科技人员的英语能力不仅仅是阅读和口头表达就足够了，还需要良好的科技写作能力，将先进的技术以高水平学术论文的形式发表出去，输出自身的理论与技术。

新的形势下，对矿业科技人员，特别是高层次矿业科技人员的英语能力，提出了更高的要求，即科技写作能力是高层次矿业科技人才必备的英语能力。如何提高矿业高层次人才的科技英语写作能力，是矿业工程领域研究生英语教育的重要课题之一。

二、 提升研究生英文科技论文阅读能力的教学模式

（一） 通过精读高水平矿业科技英文论文提高研究生的英文理解能力

英文科技论文的写作过程中，对引言的要求是很高的，必须在引言中高度概括研究领域的现状和趋势，这就要求研究生大量阅读与所写论文相关的研究文献。在阅读这些文献的过程中，一方面是为了掌握和了解所研究领域的动态、研究内容和研究水平，从而把握自己所写论文的新颖性和水平，提出自己所写论文的必要性和重要性。另一方面，通过阅读英文论文，提高研究生自身对英文论文的理解能力，只有在自身能很好理解英文科技论文的时候，才能够撰写出便于理解的英文科技论文。

为了提高研究生的英文科技论文理解能力，对于矿业工程领域中比较优秀的文章，要通过精读来进行深入理解。精读过程中，从论文引言、试验研究方法、结果讨论到结论，都要逐句认真阅读，理解每一句表达的真正意思，从而掌握和理解整篇论文的论点、论据和结论。对于摘要部分，要多次阅读，深刻理解摘要对论文研究内容和研究结论的概要总结。

研究生经过对数篇高水平矿业科技论文的精读，能够快速提高对该领域英文科技论文的理解能力，避免只进行大量泛读，长时间也难以深入理解矿业英文科技论文的弊病。高水平科技论文的精读，也是写好英文科技论文的基础。对一篇英文科技论文还不能深入理解的情况下，要写出高水平的英文科技论文是难以想象的。

（二）通过精读高水平英文科技论文掌握英文科技论文的表达方式

英文科技论文的文体结构与中文科技论文是相似的，但论文语句却存在很大的不同。作为中国研究生，由于受到母语汉语的限制，在英语的语句表达上通常会出现比较大的问题。中国研究生对英语的学习，更多的目的在于考试，对语法具有较深入的理解，虽然也掌握了较多的单词，这些单词和语法在阅读英文论文方面发挥了重要作用，但在写作时，一个语句中单词选择、句子与句子间的时态、语法关系却是一个比较困难的问题。所以中国人掌握了大量的单词，但能用来写作的却不多。

英文论文优秀范文模板 第五篇

英语议论文写作模板一

recently the issue of whether or not______(讨论话题) has been in the limelight and has aroused wide concern in the public. there are two major arguments that can be made for_________. for one thing， __________can bring ____ to_____________(优点一)。 for another， it is widely hold that people usually ____when ________________________________(优点二)。

but we must not lose sight of the fact that there are also drawbacks to__________， among which are ____________(列举缺点)。 for instance， it can be __________to _____________(举例说明)。 in addition， many people find it ________(形容词)to _______________(第二个缺点)

when asked to __________， i tend to ____________. this is because i _______________(原因一)。 furthermore， _______________________(原因二)。 finally， ______________(原因三)。

英语议论文写作模板二

the effects ___________ has produced on____________ can be boiled down to two major ones.

first ， __________________(影响一)。 more importantly， ________________(影响二)。 hence， i believe that we will see a ____________(提出展望)/ nevertheless， i do not think we will see a ______(或反面展望)

there are numerous reasons why ____， and i would like to explore a few of the most important ones here. the first is that the more(比较级)_____， the more (比较级)。 in addition， we all agree that________________________(第二个原因)

英文论文优秀范文模板 第六篇

In recent years, college students find it increasingly difficult to get a job. It sounds strange since young college students are usually intelligent, well-educated phenomenon, aspirant and eager to bring their talent into full play. Then what underlies the strange phenomenon?

近几年，大学生发觉找工作越来越难了。这听起来很奇怪，因为年轻的大学生通常是聪明的，受过良好教育，上进和渴望他们的才华得到充分发挥的。那么，是什么引起这一奇怪现象呢？

There are several reasons for this. To begin with, nowadays college students aim too high. All they want are “good” jobs which could offer good salary, comfortable working conditions, high social status among others. Consequently, most college students are unwilling to accept vacant jobs they consider not “good” enough. Another reason is that there is a big gap between the majors some students study in school and the demands of vacant jobs. So companies think some students are not fit for the jobs.

有很多原因可以解释。首先，现在大学生的要求太高了。他们想要的是能提供较好的薪酬，舒适的工作环境，较高的社会地位的好工作。结果，大部分的大学生都不愿意接受他们认为不够好的空缺职位。另一个原因是一些学生在校学习的专业和空缺职位的需求有很大的差距。所以企业认为有些学生不适合那些工作。

Solution to the problem requires efforts on both the society and the students. The companies should value the students, talent and knowledge while the latter should not merely aim at material gains. They should be down-to–earth in building up their career. Furthermore, they should face their weak points so as to improve themselves and be more competent.

解决这一问题需要社会和学生的共同努力。企业应该看重学生，才能以及知识，而学生不应该只着眼于物质利益。他们应该脚踏实地的建立自己的职业生涯。另外，他们应该面对他们的弱点从而提高自己，使自己更有能力。

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英文论文优秀范文模板 第七篇

1、As is known to all, it is important to be/do …

众所周知，重要的是……

2、I think there are at least two reasons for …

我认为至少有两个原因……

3、For one thing,… For another ， …

其中之一，另一个是……

4、Let’s take … for example …

我们以……为例……

5、From what I have mentioned above we can see that without … we cannot …

从上述我提到的`可以看出如果缺少……我们就不能……

6、It is clear that,… plays an important part in …

很明显，……在……方面起着重要作用。

7、It is because … that …

因为……

8、Different people, however ， have different opinions on this matter 。Some people think that …

但是，不同人对待这个事情上有不同的看法。有些人认为……

9、Others argue that …

另一些人认为……

10、According to them, all of us should …

按照上述内容，我们全部都应当……

11、In their opinion, nobody can … without…

他们认为，如果没有……没有人可以……

12、Compared with …， … has a lot of advantages over …

与……相比，……比……有很多优势。

13、There is no doubt that …

毫无疑问

14、In short (In brief /In a word)， I firmly support the view that …

简而言之（简要的说/一句话），我坚定地支持……的观点。

15、So my conclusion is that …

所以，我的结论是……